Voluntary Interviews in Theory and Practice: Safeguarding Adult Suspects and Managing Vulnerability in Police Investigations

Principal Investigator: Dr Lindsey Rice, University of Sheffield
Co-Investigator: Professor Layla Skinns, University of Sheffield

In partnership with: police forces, National Appropriate Adult Network and Centre for Justice Innovation

Funded by a Police Priority Grant from the N8 Policing Research Partnership (1 Feb 2026- 31 July 2027)

About the Project

Police voluntary interviews are formal interviews conducted with suspects who are not under arrest. They are increasingly used across England and Wales, particularly following reforms to the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984 (PACE) (which allow a wider range of recording devices to be used in police interviewing, including body worn video, with authorisation of the chief officer) and updated 2024 national guidance from the National Police Chiefs’ Council (NPCC).

Unlike post-arrest interviews in police custody, voluntary interviews can take place in a range of settings — including police stations, homes, workplaces, or vehicles — and are often recorded using digital technologies such as body-worn cameras. While often framed as a less intrusive alternative to arrest, voluntary interviews raise critical questions about whether suspects’ rights are protected, vulnerability is properly identified and managed appropriately, and investigations are conducted fairly and consistently across different settings and groups of suspects.

Despite their widespread use, there is currently no robust empirical evidence examining how safeguards operate across different voluntary interview settings. This project addresses that gap through five core aims:

1. Mapping voluntary interviewing practice across two police forces, examining rationale for use, interview settings, suspect and offence types, investigative outcomes (including patterns across race and gender), and recording quality.
2. Examining how interview environments shape justice, analysing how location, space and digital technology mediate the operation of procedural safeguards and vulnerability management.
3. Assessing vulnerability identification and support, including how officers apply NPCC pre- and post-interview vulnerability risk assessment requirements in practice.
4. Developing evidence-informed recommendations and operational guidance, aligned with NPCC voluntary interviewing guidance and PACE Code C, to support consistent and rights-compliant practice across forces and inform national and regional policy and training.
5. Advancing scholarly understanding of the socio-material conditions of police interviews, contributing to wider debates about access to justice and the role of digital technologies in contemporary criminal investigations.

Together, these aims ensure the project not only evaluates how Voluntary Interviews currently operate, but also shapes how they should operate to safeguard vulnerable adult suspects.

Why This Research Matters

Voluntary Interviews are increasingly used outside police stations — in homes, workplaces and vehicles — often recorded using body-worn cameras. This shift changes how suspects access their rights and safeguards.

Key questions follow:

• Are safeguards applied consistently outside custody?
• Is vulnerability properly identified and supported?
• Are there racial or gender disparities in their use and outcomes?

These issues sit at the heart of national priorities. The project supports the National Police Chiefs’ Council Race Action Plan and contributes to improving interviewing standards under the HM Inspectorate of Constabulary and Fire & Rescue Services PEEL framework and the Office of the Police Chief Scientific Adviser 2025 Science and Technology priorities.

There is currently no robust evidence on how safeguards operate across settings. This is the first in-depth study comparing Voluntary Interviews inside and outside police stations, delivering evidence-based recommendations to strengthen fairness, consistency and protection for vulnerable adult suspects.

How the Research Will Be Conducted

The project uses a mixed-methods approach, including:

• Analysis of up to 60 recorded voluntary interviews
• Observation of interviews (including use of body-worn cameras)
• Semi-structured interviews with police officers, managers, legal representatives and advocacy organisations
• Analysis of police data on interview location, offence type, outcomes, race and gender
• Review of national and regional policies

The study compares practice across two forces to examine both high-adherence and more variable implementation contexts.

What Will Result From the Project

Policy and Practice Outputs

• A comprehensive summary report with actionable recommendations
• A digital decision-making tool (web-based flowchart/app) to help frontline officers assess:
  • Suitability of interview settings
  • Safeguarding requirements
  • Vulnerability indicators
  • Access to legal advice and Appropriate Adults

This tool will initially be piloted in the participating forces, with potential for wider national roll-out.

Training and Public-Facing Resources

Follow-on plans include:

• A practitioner workshop on implementing findings
• A short, accessible video explaining Voluntary Interviews and suspects’ rights, designed for vulnerable individuals (including neurodivergent and low-literacy users)

Academic Outputs

• A co-produced journal article on how safeguards and vulnerability are managed across voluntary interview settings, and how place and digital recording shape suspects’ access to rights (provisionsally titled: ‘Safeguarding Rights Beyond Custody: Vulnerability, Place and Digital Recording in Police Voluntary Interviews’)
• Dissemination through the British Society of Criminology Vulnerability Research Network
• Development of a larger multi-force funding bid. Please contact the PI if you are interested in hearing more about this (see the contact details below).

Broader Impact

The project contributes to:

• National efforts to improve investigative quality and consistency
• The NPCC Race Action Plan and commitments to anti-racist policing
• Debates on digitalisation and justice
• International standards on police interviewing, including work connected to the COST Action ImpleMendez network

Ultimately, the project seeks to ensure that efficiency in investigations does not come at the expense of fairness, dignity or access to justice — particularly for vulnerable adults.

Contact

For further information about the project, please contact:

Dr Lindsey Rice

L.Rice@sheffield.ac.uk

Professor Layla Skinns

L.Skinns@Sheffield.ac.uk